My research is driven by the desire to understand how the modern world came to be. My fields of expertise are in Chinese and Japanese political, military and economic history, but I also make comparisons with other countries. I concentrate on two important questions. After over three decades of teaching and research on these topics, I am convinced that if one wants to understand the origins of the modern world, one must adopt the notion that political, military and economic aspects are all related and each plays a role in providing a deeper understanding of my two questions of interest.

The first question is: “Why did China and Japan discontinue their impressive innovations in gunpowder weapons allowing the Rise of the West?” Gunpowder was invented in China and subsequent innovations led to explosive cast iron bombs and primitive cannon, well before the West. Japan adopted Western muskets and cannon and used them efficiently and creatively. Musket volley fire was developed in Japan prior to its appearance in the West. If China and/or Japan had continued their gunpowder weapon improvements at their earlier rate, the expansion of Western powers would likely have been challenged by the Far East. Yet China and Japan dramatically reduced their pace of gunpowder weapon development, allowing the dominant Rise of the West. What caused this drop in the rate of improvements?

The second question contains two parts. “What is the nature and cause of the onset of early modern economic growth, which is notable increases in long run growth rates of both income per capita and population – albeit not at the high rates observed in the Industrial Revolution?” Secondly, “How did modest early modern economic growth in England transform into the Industrial Revolution, while failing to do so in many other countries?” The onset and spread of England’s Industrial Revolution dramatically changed living standards for the average person throughout the world. What caused the Industrial Revolution?

It is a selective marshalling of political, military, and economic factors and their relationships that can offer the best answers to these questions, at least in my opinion.